Chemistry (materials / metals)

1) Some alternatives to platinum include palladium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium.

2) Palladium is relatively less expensive, has a better color and luster, is more malleable than platinum which makes it easier to work with and less likely to crack, and is comparably durable, but it is not as resistant to blemishing as platinum. Ruthenium is also less expensive than platinum and is as hard and durable as platinum, but it is not malleable and has a lower scratch resistance. Iridium is one of the most valuable and rarest of platinum group metals, it is very hard and durable and has a higher melting and boiling point than platinum, it is also very expensive and can be difficult to work with. Osmium is the densest of the the platinum group metals, is highly corrosion resistant, and has a high boiling point, but it is brittle and does not have a good luster.

3)The life cycle of platinum includes mining, refining and use for various purposes. Mining platinum ore typically involves open-pit excavation and underground mining techniques, followed by concentration of the ore and refineries that extract the platinum from the ore. The ore is then shipped to smelters and refiners who convert the material into an intermediate product, typically using smelting and chlorine leaching techniques. The intermediate product is then further refined, using methods such as